英语语言学名词解释
Synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time.
Arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.
Duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels; meaningful units and meaningless segments .
Competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. Performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. Langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.
Parole: the concrete utterances of speaker.
Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases
to which they are attached.
Root: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. Stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
Acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.
Syntax: the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure.
Subordination: the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Denotation: denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers.
Connotation: properties of the entity a word denote.
Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.
Hyponymy: the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership.
Entailment: This a logic relationship between two sentences in which the truth
of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ call.
Critical Period Hypothesis The critical period for language acquisition语言获得的关键期 Eric Lenneberg was a major proponent.
The critical period hypothesis关键期假设 It refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction. It coincides with the process of brain lateralization. Prior to this period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged .「语言学习关键期」（the critical period）的争议。
认同「愈早开始学习外语，成效愈好」的人，在学理上常引用「语言学习关键期假说」（The Critical Period Hypothesis）来论证此项观点。1959年，神经生理学家Penfield和Roberts从大脑可塑性的角度，提出十岁以前，是学习语言的最佳年龄。哈佛大学心理学教授David Lenneberg（1967）则从医学临床经验，以「神经生理学的观点」有系统地解释「语言学习关键期」，他认为人的大脑从二岁开始边化（lateralization）[4]，在边化完成前，人是用全脑来学习语言，约在青春期左右，大脑会完成边化，从此，语言学习主要由左边大脑负责。人脑「边化」后的语言学习不如全脑学习时期来得好。因此，语言
学习最好在大脑完成边化之前，这也就是所谓的「语言学习关键期」。除了Lenneberg外，Bickerton（1981）和Coppieters（1987）的研究结果也倾向支持「语言学习关键期」的存在。Lenneberg提出「语言学习关键期假说」主要用来解释第一语（母语）的学习。而Thomas Scovel（1969）更将此假说的解释范围扩及第一语以外的语言学习。 acculturation n.文化传入, 文化适应 Acculturation is the obtainment of culture by an individual or a group of people. The term originally applied only to the process concerning a foreign culture, from the acculturing or accultured recipient point of view, having this foreign culture added and mixed with that of his or her already existing one acquired since birth. However, the term now has come to mean, in addition, the child-acquisition acculturation of native culture since infancy in the household. A child's learning of its first culture is also called enculturation or merely socialization. The traditional definition sometimes differentiate between acculturation by an individual (transculturation) and that by a group, usually very large (acculturation). The old and the new additional definitions have a boundary that blurs in modern multicultural societies, where a child of an immigrant family might be encouraged to acculturate both the dominant also well as the ancestral culture, either of which may be considered \"foreign\
Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‘s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes
outside the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (by N.Chomsky). 6.What is displacement? “Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‘t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share. 7.What is cultural transmission? This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‘s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‘s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language. 8. What is interchangeability? Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a
man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) ―speaking‖ and which listening. 9.Why do linguists say language is human specific? First of all, human language has six ―design features‖ which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but
did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so. 10. What functions does language have? Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday,
representative
of
the
London
school,
recognizes
three
―
Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual. 11. What is the phatic
function? The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship. 12. What is the directive function? The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle‘s ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖ 13. What is the informative function? Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P. Grice‘s ―Cooperative Principle‖, one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informing at all. 14. What is the interrogative function? When language is used to obtain information, it serves an ―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‘s/listener‘s answer. 15. What is the expressive function? The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.
Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too,
语言学重点名词解释汇总
Semantics is the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory. The naming theory 命名说 According to it, the linguistic forms or symbols or words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stands for. So words are just names or labels for things. It is also called the referential theory （指称论）. Theory of the context of situation [ J. R. Firth (1890-1960) ]情景语境 ①The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.②The relevant objects.③The effects of the verbal action. The conceptualist view 概念理论 This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. It is also called ideational theory（观念论） Contextualism语境J. R. Firth 费斯 The linguists hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Behaviorism行为主义 This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. This view of meaning proposed by Bloomfield is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill. According to Bloomfield, the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as “ the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forth
in the hearer.” The Definition of sense Sense refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations. The definition of reference Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. What is culture? Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language.
In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs. Anthropological study of linguistics: study of language in a sociocultural context. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis定义Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns. Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around. Sociolinguistics The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. Variationist perspective: 变异视角 Variety 的定义People who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner. Dialect定义Varieties (变体) related to the user are normally known as dialects Register定义In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. 1. Regional dialects are linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions. 2. Social-class dialect, or sociolect 社会方言, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. 3.Idiolect 个人方言A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements
regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. 4. Ethnic dialect 种族方言A variety of language that is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation 5. Standard dialect: Diglossia: Two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions Monolingual: Speakers of a single language control different varieties of that language. Bilingual: People develop some ability in a second language. High Context
Culture:- Cultures that rely heavily on non-verbal and subtle situational cues in communication.
Low Context Culture:- Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication. Definition of Pragmatics The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point
of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C） linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04) 18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct). 19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.
20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition. 21.communicative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations. Chapter 2: Phonology 1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds) 2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C) 3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03) 4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. 5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues. QR It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another) 6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords. 7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords. 8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form. 9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.
胡壮麟语言学部分名词解释
1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.
2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.
3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.
4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.
5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.
6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.
7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.
8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how
ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.
9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.
10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.
13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.
14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.
15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et
16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.
18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.
19. parole: the actual phenomena or d
ata of linguistics(utterances).
20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.
21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.
22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.
23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.
24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing
the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.
26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.
27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.
29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.
30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.
31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds
that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.
32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.
33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.
34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.
35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexi
cal or grammatical.
36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.
37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).
39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.
40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.
41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.
42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.
44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.
45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)
46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.
47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.
48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.
49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.
50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.
51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.
52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.
53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.
54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.
55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.
56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.
57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjace
nt sound,which is more specifically
called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.
58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.
59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence
of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous
60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.
61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.
63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.
64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.
65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally
equivalent,or
approaching
equivalence,to
one
of
its
constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an
endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.
66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.
67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.
68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.
69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these
two
government
relations,is
technically
called
constituent
command,c-command for short.
70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.
71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.
72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.
73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations:
for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..
74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.
75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.
76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.
77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about
things in context.
80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.
81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.
82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.
83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.
84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair
do
not
constitute
a
positive-negative
opposition,such
as
buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.
85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.
86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)
87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A
superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,
88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>
89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.
90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.
91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.
92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.
93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.
94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match th
ose of another that precedes or follows.
95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.
96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it. 97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.
98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.
99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.
100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.
101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.
102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.
103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.
104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.
105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.
106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.
107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.
108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.
109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).
110. psycholinguistic reality: the realit
y of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.
111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.
112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.
113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.
114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of
rules,conventions,etc.governing the skilled use of language in a
society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.
115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”
116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,i.e.language determines thought.
117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.
118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.
119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.
120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations
课后答案
Define the following terms: 1. design feature:are features that define our
human
languages,such
as 2.
arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.
function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle
imformative
function,interpersonal
function,performative
function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was often the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 8.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use. 9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of
linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 12.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language. 14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies. 15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between
language
and
language-related
disciplines
such
as
psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence
etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et 16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. 17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation. 18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. 19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). 20Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.
21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of
symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. 24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.
22． 31 Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete
letters,Greek
letters,diacritics,etc.
33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that
involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation. 35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical. 36 compound oly morphemic words
which
consist
wholly
of
free
morphemes,such
as
classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc. 37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of he stems to which they are attached. 38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). 39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes. 40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity. 41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme. 42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in ―dog’s‖. 44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word. 45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a
word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖) 46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation. 47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns. 48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs. 49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs. 50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words. 51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter. 52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. 53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native. 54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword. 55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system. 56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language. 57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence
of
an
adjacent
sound,which
is
more
specifically
called.‖contact‖or‖contiguous‖assimilation. 58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different. 59. folk etymology: a
change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous 60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》各章课后题名词术语 1. Design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc. 2.Function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal
function,performative
function,interpersonal
function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 7.
prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use. 9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language. 14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies. 15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence
etc.Branches
of
macrolinguistics
include
psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et 16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. 17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation. 18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. 19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). 20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.
22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use
of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. 24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.
comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics
uprighted,obsolete
letters,Greek
letters,diacritics,etc.
33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation. 35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical. 36. compoundoly morphemic words
which
consist
wholly
of
free
morphemes,such
as
classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc. 37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. 38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). 39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes. 40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity. 41.allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme. 42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme
in ―dog’s‖. 44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word. 45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖) 46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with
semantic interpretation. 47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns. 48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs. 49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs. 50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words. 51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter. 52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. 53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native. 54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword. 55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system. 56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language. 57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent
sound,which
is
more
specifically
called.‖contact‖or‖contiguous‖assimilation. 58.dissimilation: the influence
exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different. 59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous 60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc. 61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. 62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present. 63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent. 64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. 65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. 66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents. 67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the
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